Geography Notes for UPSC and State Exams
✅ Topics and Sub-topics: 300+
✅ Prelims Relevance: ✰✰✰✰✰
✅ Mains Relevance: ✰✰✰✰✰
✅ Average student rating: ✰✰✰✰✰
✅ Difficulty Level: Moderate
✅ Usefulness: ✰✰✰✰✰
The universe and the solar system
◐ Introduction to universe, formation, and structure.
◐ The Big Bang theory, Steady-State Dark theory, Cosmic Inflation theory, and Lambda-CDM Model.
◐ The Solar System: Origin and role. Sun (structure, atmosphere, layers, and solar wind).
◐ Planets of the solar system: Inner and outer planets.
◐ Galaxies: Spiral Galaxies & Elliptical Galaxies, and Our Galaxy (The Milky Way).
◐ Gravitational Waves, Doppler-Shift, Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation.
◐ Stars: Types, composition, Characteristics, formation, and life cycle.
◐ Space exploration: past, present, and the future.
◐ Space and Time: The concept of Light Years. Space missions and discoveries.
Geomorphology: The study of landforms
◐ Introduction to Geomorphology: Definition, scope, and importance in UPSC.
◐ Branches of geomorphology: Physical, historical, and environmental geomorphology.
◐ Theories of landform development: Uniformitarianism vs Catastrophism
◐ Theories of Endogenetic and Exogenetic Processes.
◐ Earth’s interior: Structure, Crust, Mantle, and Core. Seismic Discontinuities.
◐ Plate tectonics: Types and their movement.
◐ Continental Drift Theory: Evidence, and criticism.
◐ Rocks: Types and their formation. The Rock Cycle.
◐ Minerals and their distribution in India, economic significance of rocks and minerals.
◐ Endogenic processes: Diastrophism (folding, faulting, warping), volcanism, earthquakes.
◐ Glacial Landforms: Erosional (cirques, U-shaped valleys), depositional (moraines, drumlins etc.).
◐ Arid Landforms: Erosional (yardangs, zeugen), depositional (sand dunes, loess etc.).
◐ Lakes: Types, classification, formation, and important lakes in India and the world.
◐ Plateaus: Formation, types, and classification. Major plateaus in India and the world.
◐ Earthquakes: Historical background. Why earthquakes happen? Shallow and deep quakes. Earthquake waves-primary, secondary, surface and love waves.
◐ Earth’s magnetic field: Origin, causes, structure, components, and the Magnetosphere. Some applications of Earth’s Magnetic Field.
◐ Volcanism: Types, causes, processes, volcanic landforms, eruptions, distribution of volcanoes, volcanoes and plate tectonics.
◐ Drainage patterns: Introduction, types (dendritic, trellis, radial, rectangular, parallel etc.), classification of drainage patterns, and drainage patterns in India.
Climatology
◐ Climate: factors influencing climate (latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, ocean currents, relief features and wind patterns).
◐ Classification of climate: Koeppen’s and Thornthwaite climatic classification.
◐ Climate zones of the world: tropical, temperate, polar, arid and semi-arid.
◐ Atmosphere: Composition, structure, layers, atmospheric pressure, temperature distribution, heat budget.
◐ Atmospheric circulation: Hadley cell, Farrell cell and the Polar cell.
◐ Weather and climate, cloud formation and precipitation, atmospheric humidity and condensation.
◐ Wind patterns, jet streams and monsoons.
◐ Monsoons and their mechanism: Indian, African and East-Asian monsoon.
◐ El-Nino, La-Nina, Southern Oscillation, and ENSO.
◐ Jet streams: Role, and major types(subtropical and polar jet stream).
◐ Humidity: Concept, types (relative, absolute, specific), measure (hygrometer, psychrometer, dew point measurement), factors affecting humidity.
◐ Polar vortex, Ozone hole depletion, major pollutants affecting Ozone layer, and the greenhouse effect.
◐ Smog: Types (Photochemical, sulfurous smog), pollutants, sources, and components.
◐ Cyclones: Formation, types (temperate, tropical, subtropical), structure of a cyclone (eye, eye wall, spiral bands), classification and intensity.
◐ Precipitation: Types (rain, snow, sleet, hail, drizzle), mechanism and measurement of precipitation.
◐ Condensation: Mechanism, factors affecting condensation, forms (dew, fog, clouds, frost, mist), types of clouds.
Oceanography
◐ Ocean basins and topography: Ridges, trenches, and continental margins.
◐ Seawater properties: Salinity, temperature, density, and vertical stratification (thermocline, isocline etc.).
◐ Ocean circulation: Ocean currents, thermohaline circulation, and gyres.
◐ Waves and Tides: Formation, types, and impact on costal dynamics.
◐ Coral reefs, mangroves, estuaries: Ecology and conservation challenges.
◐ Deep sea ecosystems: Hydrothermal vents and Bioluminescent organisms.
◐ Threats: Ocean acidification, eutrophication, and overfishing.
◐ El-Nino, La-Nina, ENSO, Southern Oscillation, and Indian Ocean Dipole.
◐ Tsunamis, cyclones, storm surges: Causes and mitigation.
◐ International conventions: UNCLOS, MARPOL, and SDG 14.
◐ India’s initiatives: Sagarmala, Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) etc.
Indian Geography
◐ India: Geographical extent and frontiers
◐ Physiographic divisions of India: Himalayas, Indo-Gangetic Plains, Peninsular Plateau, coastal plains, and Islands.
◐ Drainage systems: Major river basins (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.), Himalayan vs Peninsular rivers.
◐ Climate: Monsoon mechanism, seasons, climate regions (Koeppen’s classification).
◐ Natural vegetation and soil: Different types of forests, soils, vegetation and their distribution.
◐ Hills of peninsular India: Vindhyas, Aravalis, Satpuras, Eastern and Western Ghats.
◐ Biodiversity hotspots: Western Ghats, Sundarbans, and Himalayas.
◐ Wildlife conservation: Project Tiger, Ramsar sites, National parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
◐ UNESCO World Heritage sites: Taj mahal, Khajuraho, caves, etc.
◐ Environmental degradation: Desertification, Deforestation, and the glacial retreat.
◐ North-East India: Physiography, ethnic diversity, and major projects.
◐ Western India: Thar desert, Gujrat coast and Industrial hubs.
◐ Earthquakes: Seismic zones and preparedness (NDMA guidelines).
◐ National Highways, Waterways, Ports, Airports, Railways, and Coastal Economic Zones.
◐ Energy Resources: Coal, petroleum, natural gas, solar parks, wind farms and energy security.
Economic Geography
◐ Spatial distribution of resources: Resource-rich vs resource-deficient regions.
◐ Economic activities: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary, and Quinary Sectors.
◐ Industrial Regions: Mumbai-Pune Belt, Delhi-NCR, Bengaluru-Chennai Corridor.
◐ Special Economic Zones (SEZs), Industrial Corridors (DMIC, Amritsar-Kolkata), and Make in India.
◐ Service Sector Growth: IT Hubs (Bengaluru, Hyderabad), Tourism, and Gig Economy.
◐ Digital Economy: Digital India, Fintech, and E-Governance.
◐ Knowledge Economy: Research Parks, Innovation Clusters (Atal Tinkering Labs).
◐ International Trade: Major Exports/Imports, Trade Agreements (RCEP, FTAs).
◐ Regional Inequality: BIMARU States vs. Southern/Western States.
◐ Agriculture: Cropping Patterns, Agro-Climatic Zones, and Green Revolution.
◐ Mining and Mineral Resources: Coal, Iron Ore, Bauxite, and Critical Minerals.
◐ Sustainable Development: Green GDP, Circular Economy, and SDGs.
◐ SAARC and BIMSTEC: Trade, Energy Cooperation, and Connectivity.
◐ China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and India’s Counter-Strategies (Necklace of Diamonds).
Geography: Current Affair and Contemporary Issues
◐ Latest IPCC Synthesis Report and climate tipping points.
◐ Greenwashing and corporate accountability in net-zero pledges.
◐ India’s LiFE Mission (Lifestyle for Environment) and carbon market framework.
◐ Great Indian Bustard vs. Renewable Energy transmission lines (Supreme Court case).
◐ National Green Hydrogen Mission and green ammonia hubs.
◐ UN High Seas Treaty (BBNJ Agreement) 2023 and marine biodiversity.
◐ Air pollution and AQI management (GRAP measures in Delhi-NCR).
◐ International Solar Alliance (ISA) and One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG).